Table of Contents Introduction Concept of Hybridization Types of Hybridization sp Hybridization sp² Hybridization sp³ Hybridization dsp² & sp³d Hybridization Orbital Diagrams & Examples Factors Affecting Hybridization Significance in Molecular Geometry Conclusion Introduction Hybridization is the concept of mixing atomic orbitals of similar energies on an atom to form new hybrid orbitals, which explain…
Table of Contents Introduction Valence Bond Theory Fundamentals Hybridization Concept Applications of VBT Drawbacks of VBT Conclusion Introduction The Valence Bond Theory (VBT), proposed by Heitler, London and developed by Pauling and Slater, explains covalent bonding as the overlap of half-filled atomic orbitals. It builds on the idea that when atomic orbitals overlap, electron…
Table of Contents Introduction VSEPR Theory Fundamentals Electron Domains & Repulsions Common Molecular Shapes Examples & Geometry Table Factors Affecting Shape Conclusion Introduction In Chapter 3 of Class 11 Chemistry, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory explains how electron pairs around a central atom arrange themselves to minimize repulsion, determining the geometry…
Table of Contents Introduction Crystal Lattice Unit Cell Types of Unit Cells Unit Cell Parameters Bravais Lattices Miller Indices Conclusion Introduction In Chapter 6 of Class 11 Chemistry, the concepts of crystal lattice and unit cell form the foundation of solid state chemistry. A clear understanding of these concepts helps explain the arrangement of particles…
Table of Contents Introduction Isomorphism Definition Examples Factors Affecting Isomorphism Polymorphism Definition Examples Significance Properties of Crystalline Substances Conclusion Introduction In Chapter 6 of Class 11 Chemistry, we study how crystalline substances can exhibit similar structures (isomorphism) or exist in more than one form (polymorphism). These phenomena influence physical properties, industrial applications, and identification of…
Table of Contents Introduction Definitions Anisotropy Isotropy Origins in Crystalline Solids Directional Properties Comparison Examples in Materials Significance in Applications Conclusion Introduction The physical behavior of crystalline solids often depends on direction. Understanding anisotropy and isotropy is crucial for predicting properties like conductivity, refractive index, and mechanical strength in different crystallographic directions. Definitions Anisotropy Anisotropy…
Table of Contents Introduction Symmetry Elements & Operations Rotation Axes Mirror Planes Centre of Inversion Rotation–Reflection Axes Seven Crystal Systems Physical Properties of Crystalline Solids Conclusion Introduction Symmetry in crystalline solids underpins their classification into crystal systems and dictates many of their physical properties. In Chapter 6 of Class 11 Chemistry, you’ll learn how symmetry…
By Tariq Pathan | Published: June 25, 2025 Table of Contents Introduction In Chapter 6 of Class 11 Chemistry, we explore the external morphology and internal features of crystalline solids. Key topics include the ideal geometrical shapes of crystals, their planes of weakness (cleavage), common habits, and the process by which crystals grow. Geometrical Shape…
Table of Contents Introduction to Solid State Classification of Solids Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids Types of Crystalline Solids Ionic Solids Metallic Solids Molecular Solids Covalent/Network Solids Comparison of Amorphous and Crystalline Applications & Examples Conclusion Introduction to Solid State The solid state is one of the four fundamental states of matter, characterized by fixed…
Table of Contents Introduction Primary Nebula & Protostar Main Sequence & Stable Fusion Red Giant & Advanced Burning Stellar Death Pathways White Dwarf & Planetary Nebula Supernova Explosion Remnants & Legacy Conclusion Introduction The life cycle of a star spans millions to billions of years, beginning in a vast cloud of gas and dust and…
